Why Great Societies Fall Essay - 672 Words

What is a great society? The key components to a great society are good economic values, strong government, and to make sure your citizens are happy. However, these societies have the opposite of that. These societies have bad laws and rules, citizens living in poverty, and they go through a ton of wars, but losing every single one. Leaving almost all of their soldiers dead. Minority of the societies getting treated unfairly, citizens rioting, dying, with no food, water, or even shelter for them. The reason why great societies fall is because of wars, poverty of citizens, and the bad rules and laws of these societies. The first reason why great societies fall is because of the wars that they fought. In When the U.S. went to Iraq, they†¦show more content†¦They live in small homes, very little food, and water that is filled with tons of bacteria and viruses. Without the proper amt. of hydration they could die very soon. In the Maze Runner, They try to make them survive in the maze, and try to get out. They don’t have a good place to stay, and many dangerous things that will kill the kids. This is dystopian because if they can’t find any food or water, they could and probably would die. In Greece and Rome, the poor were practically forced to work for the rich as a slave. They lived in little tiny huts and with little to no pay. They could only eat certain foods that were grown on the farm. If they were living on the streets, nobody would care about them. Many great societies fell because they didn’t help the citizens. What made the government bad in being a great society was that they had unfair laws. In Rome, the poor were accused by the rich for any crime that they did. They had terrible punishments. These punishments for the poor resulted in being tortured. In the article it says â€Å" The poor, who were often not citizens, faced harsher punishments than the rich; sometimes even torture.† ( TCI Textbook). The punishments should be based on the crime you did, not your social status. During the 1960’s in the U.s., there was discrimination against the African Americans. They had certain laws against them.They had different water fountains, different seating in restaurants, buses, anywhere really. In the book â€Å" TheShow MoreRelatedThe Main Problems in Fallen Societies947 Words   |  4 PagesSocieties fall due to three main problems, corrupt government, unemployment, and lack of freedom for citizens. So many things have fallen from grace, including society, I say it as a whole and not a plural due to the general rule that every society falls at some point. In a few sentences, describe what your entire essay will be about. You should state the three reasons why great civilizations and societies fall. There are three main reasons, all stemming from that fact that humans destroy what theyRead MoreThe Fall of Rome and Nazi Germany697 Words   |  3 PagesSocieties flourish and fall, all of them do. They fight and suffer and even kill to keep their society alive. As a result, societies like ancient Rome and Nazi Germany, eventually fall and crumble. Over time some of these societies recover, but are never the same again. Societies fail due to political corruption, loss of resources and war. These obstacles are hard to overcome, but not impossible. These obstacles weaken and tear at societies, until they finally break, turning them into a piece ofRead MoreFallen Societies Undergo Social Injustice, Government Corruption, and Poverty 1218 Words   |  5 Pagessocial judgements? In different societies there are many different reasons that they could fall. Social injustice, corrupt government, and poverty are some of the different reasons that will be written about. In Divergent, Rome and Nazi,Germany there were similar downfalls between all of the societies. There are many ways for different societies to fall; social injustice, corrupt government, and poverty. Although there are many different reasons that a society could fall due to different political reasonsRead MoreHow Societies Fall1272 Words   |  5 Pagesof a society without any flaws? A society where everything is perfect? Well keep dreaming because there is no such thing as a â€Å"Perfect Society† and there never will be. All societies fall, whether its from governmental corruption, Social injustice, or even economical failure. Calling something a perfect society is a difficult task, and Im not sure if anyone has ever been able to prove of their societies perfection. All societies will fail, the only difference is that not all will fall the sameRead MoreThe Main Causes Of The Fall Of Great Societies1328 Words   |  6 PagesGreat societies fail all around the world at anytime, is America in danger? How can we prevent our society from falling like others? Many past societies have fallen for various reasons, some reasons occur more than others and the three mains reasons that string through many of the societies are: political corruption, differing opinions in religion and excessive military spending. This information not only shows us information that caused powerful societies to fall but als o shows what people rightRead MoreThe Failing Fate Suffered in Rome, Nazi Germany, and the Fictional Ready Player One847 Words   |  3 Pagesthat your society is perfect, without any flaws or worries? Well, thats what the Romans and what Nazi Germany thought, and where are they now? Gone. Thats where they are. Even in the fiction book, Ready Player One, they thought they were so tough, but not anymore. These Societies may have been powerful and wealthy, but they all suffered the same fate. Corrupt leaders, turned the society upside down. Poverty, affected the moral of the civilization, bringing it down. Wars destroyed the society, makingRead MoreWhy Societies Fall644 Words   |  3 PagesWhile Great societies are well great, nothing can last forever. Many great societies that people thought will never die have fallen to various things. Take rome, they fell because inflation of money, which didnt allow for much spending. Or the Nazi’s. That Nazi government was very corrupt and fell because of what they did. Or even the Etruscans. They were overthrown by the very people they governed. So Societies fall for many reasons, including corrupt leaders, money inflation, and social revolutionRead MoreCivility As A Moral Issue1537 Words   |  7 Pages34-129-01 (2014 Fall) | Callum McGill | Civility As A Moral Issue | Page 1 The idea of civility being a moral issue is a centuries old discussion. In our readings, we look at various works from the famous philosopher, who is Aristotle, as well as the theories and research by Twenge and Campbell. Aristotle discusses, in detail, the complexities of moral character, and Twenge and Campbell examine narcissism and what it is to be a narcissist. Civility, which is defined as, â€Å"acting in a cooperativeRead MoreThings Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe858 Words   |  4 Pagesthe 1920’s. The abundant masculinity in this novel is not sexism but just how the culture functions. Chinua Achebe’s novel Things Fall Apart is not sexist towards women; in fact, it shows that women are essential to the Ibo society and posses a great amount of strength. For example, the novel is not sexist because it emphasizes the importance of the women to the society. One of the major contributions women make is the amount of crops they harvest. â€Å"His mother and his sister worked hard enough, butRead MoreEthics of Materialism1603 Words   |  7 Pagessee that there is indeed a great association between the two. Are materialism and the obsessive consumer culture we have made for ourselves ethical? Peoples opinion on this question can be polar opposites. Some people believe that materialism has great benefits for the technological and economic growth, while others argue that materialism strips people of their individuality and creates unethical division between the rich and the poor. Its very easy to understand why someone would chose to live

Race, Religion, Social Class, And Ethnicity Essay

How one does in school, one’s social ability, and one’s awareness of others are all guided by how an individual identifies. Identification with one’s gender, race, religion, social class, and ethnicity are all driving forces behind an individual’s future self. Identity is a crucial part of who you are, and in recent studies and experimentation researchers have been trying to identify new, untested factors that influence behavior in people. Although, in the past there hasn’t been a strong focus on the positive effects of race and ethnicity, the conversation is now shifting to align itself with the current times. With America becoming increasingly more ethnically and racially diverse, we must take the time to see how certain factors, specifically race and ethnicity, impact a person’s development and behavior in both positive and negative ways. Attributes and characteristics such as good academic standing, one’s well-being in terms of hea lth, and one’s well-being in terms of self-esteem have all been the focus of studies focused on ethnic and racial identity. Through the research of scholarly articles and publications, evidence has been found to show that the intersection of the racial and ethnic identity of an individual both shapes and affects their personal growth and development in childhood and adolescence (Rivas-Drake, et al.). According to French, et al., this has been a more recent conversation with racial preference being researched in the 1940’s and 1950’s usingShow MoreRelatedRace, Religion, Social Class, And Ethnicity1274 Words   |  6 Pages your social ability, and your awareness of others are all guided by how you identify. Identification in one’s gender, race, religion, social class, and ethnicity are all driving forces behind your future self. Identity is a crucial part of who you are, and in recent studies and experimentation researchers have been trying to identify new, untested factors that influence behavior in people. Although, in the past there hasn’t been a strong focus on the positive and negative effects of race and ethnicityRead MoreHow Do You Feel Race, Ethnicity, Social Class, And Religion846 Words   |  4 PagesHow do you feel race, ethnicity, social class, and religion has shaped you and your family lives? Whether we take notice or not these aspects of our childhood and today’s life contributed to our viewpoint about different parts of the world. Also, the way your family interacted with you and others is determined in a way by these key points. My race, social class, ethnicity, and religion have helped mold me into the young adult I am, beliefs, and values I hold today because my understanding of whoRead MoreRace And Ethnicity Are Integral Parts Of America905 Words   |  4 PagesRace and Ethnicity are integral parts of America. They are often used interchangeably. Race is associated with biology. It is a socially and politically constructed category of individuals who are assumed to share common inborn biological traits, such as bone structure , hair type, skin, or eye color. These distinctions have been used to the detriment or advantage of American groups over time. Whereas ethnicity is associated with culture factors. It is often tied to nationality of origin and characterizedRead MoreThe Theory Of Social Class1128 Words   |  5 Pagesfactor that affects identity is social class. The Marxism assumption is that socio-economic position is a fundamental element to shape identity. People are not individuals, but part of a class. The Marxist ideology is that of â€Å"false consciousness†, this meaning that some classes, the lower, working class, are not aware of the position they have to society. As a result, this is why they often work in jobs that are underpaid. Some Marxist theorists believe that class identity is procreated in cultureRead MoreThe Idea Of Privilege And Discrimination1015 Words   |  5 Pagesimmunity that one occupies based on certain characteristics. Some of the privilege factors in my social life are my race/ethnicity, class, and religion. On the other hand, I define discrimination as a form of social injustice in which one is at a disadvantage solely based on his features. For example, because of the pigment of my skin, my middle school teacher treated me in an unfavorable fashion. Furthermore, Race plays an important role in obtaining a privileged status. Dan Pence, a professor in SouthernRead MoreSociology Of Our Times By Diana Kendall And The Meaning Of Sociology By Charon And Vigilant1053 Words   |  5 Pagesreally focused on the chapter about race and ethnicity. The readings had two sections related to the same discussion, one about race, wealth and ethnicity and another about how children who are born immigrants having to learn how to adapt to their â€Å"normal† identity in society. Other topics of prejudice, discrimination, and sociological perspectives were interesting and helped gain more knowledge about the chapter. In Sociology in Our Times, Kendal l informs us about race and how it is defined in the worldRead MoreRace And Ethnicity : Biological And Sociological Factors980 Words   |  4 PagesRace and Ethnicity both relate to biological and sociological factors respectively, and even though they can overlap, they are distinct. The term race refers to the concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of physical characteristics (which usually result from genetic ancestry). Race presumes shared biological or genetic traits, whether actual or asserted and the category to which others assign individuals on the basis of physical characteristics. Races areRead MoreRace And Ethnicity : Biological And Sociological Factors957 Words   |  4 PagesRace and Ethnicity both relates to biological and sociological factors respectively and even though they can overlap, they are distinct. The term race refers to the concept of dividing people into populations or groups on the basis of various sets of phy sical characteristics (which usually result from genetic ancestry). Race presumes shared biological or genetic traits, whether actual or asserted and the category to which others assign individuals on the basis of physical characteristics. 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That inequality made me angry, and forced me to quit working. My social class is the upper-middle class. I am a 29-year-old male. I belong to Arab Semitic race, and I

Shashi Free Essays

Brilliant Exam Engine Answer Key with Hint Total time :40 Min Maximum mark: 120 Subject :Demo Test Mark for True answer: 4 Chapter :One Dimensional Motion Mark for Wrong Answer: -1 1. A particle starts from the origin, goes along x-axis to the point (20m, 0) and then returns along the same line to the point (-20m, 0). The distance and displacement of the particle during the trip are A)40m, 0 B)40m, 20m C)40m, -20 m D)60m, -20 m E)+20m, -40 m Hint: Distance = 20 + [20 – (-20)] = 60 m Displacement = -20 – 0 = -20 m 2. We will write a custom essay sample on Shashi or any similar topic only for you Order Now Choose the correct statement from the following A)The magnitude of velocity of a particle is equal to its speed B)The magnitude of the average velocity in an interval is equal to its average speed in that interval C)It is impossible to have a situation in which the speed of the particle is never zero but the average speed in an interval is zero D)It is possible to have a situation in which the speed of particle is zero but the average speed is not zero E)Both A and B 3. Which of the following is not an example of linear motion A)A book at rest B)A body in uniform circular motion C)Wheel rotating at uniform speed on road D)A body rolling down an inclined plane E)None 4. The correct statement from the following is A)A body having zero velocity will not necessarily have zero acceleration B)A body having zero velocity will necessarily have zero acceleration C)A body having uniform speed can have only uniform acceleration D)A body having non-uniform velocity will have zero acceleration E)All the above 5. When two bodies move uniformly towards each other the distance between them decreases by 8 m/s. If both bodies move in the same direction with different speeds the distance between them increases by 2 m/s. The speeds of two bodies will be A)4 m/s and 3 m/s B)4 m/s and 2 m/s C)5 m/s and 3 m/s D)7 m/s and 3m/s E)8 m/s and 4 m/s Hint: 6. A car runs at a constant speed on a circular track of radius 100m, taking 62. 8 sec on each lap. What is average velocity and average speed on each lap A)10m/s, 10 m/s B)0, 0 C)0, 10 m/s D)10 m/s, 0 m/s E)10m/s, 5 m/s Hint: . Distance travelled by a body is directly proportional to time, then the speed of the body A)increases B)decreases C)first increases and then decreases D)is zero E)remains the same 8. A car moving with a speed of 40 km/h can be stopped by applying breaks after at least 2m. If the same car is moving with a speed of 80 km/h, the minimum stopping distance is A)8 m B)2 m C)4 m D)6 m E)10 m Hint: A)Acceleration B)Velocity C)Displacement D)Distance E)Mass 9. 10. The distance travelled by a body falling freely from rest in first, second and third seconds are in the ratio A)1 : 2 : 3 B)1 : 3 : 5 C)1 : 4 : 9 D)1 : 4 : 5 E)1 : 1 : 1 Hint: A)6 sec B)8 sec C)10 sec D)4 sec E)Cannot catch the bus 11. Hint: 12. A)Uniform acceleration B)Uniform retardation C)Non-uniform acceleration D)Zero acceleration E)Non-uniform retardation Hint: 13. A)Directly towards the target B)5 cm above the target C)10 cm above the target D)15 cm above the target E)5 cm below the target Hint: A B C D E 14. Hint: 15. With doubling the speed of a vehicle the distance required to stop it becomes A)Doubled B)Halved C)Tripled D)Four times E)Five times Hint: A B C D 16. E 17. A B C D E 18. A B C D E 19. A B C D E 20. If displacement of a particle is zero, distance covered by it A)may be zero or may not be zero B)must be zero C)must not be zero D)all are true E)all are false 21. The distance travelled is given by A)area under speed – time graph B)area under distance – time graph C)slope of velocity – time graph D)slope of velocity – time graph E)None 22. A B C D E Hint: 23. A ball is thrown upward. After it has left the hand, its acceleration A)decreases B)increases C)is zero D)remains constant E)will increase during descending and decrease during ascending 24. A)20 m B)25 m C)30 m D)45 m E)40 m Hint: A B C D E 25. Hint: 26. A body is thrown upwards and reaches its maximum height. At that position A)its acceleration is minimum B)its velocity is zero and acceleration is also zero C)its velocity is zero but acceleration is maximum D)its velocity is zero and its acceleration is the acceleration due to gravity E)both A and B 27. A)Velocity – displacement relation B)Position – time relation C)Time – Velocity relation D)Time – displacement relation E)Acceleration displacement relation 28. A)Velocity B)Acceleration C)Displacement D)Speed E)A and B 29. Speed is a: A)vector quantity B)scalar quantity C)neither vector nor scalar D)sometimes vector sometimes scalar E)none 30. A particle moves with uniform velocity. Which of the following statements is true: A)Its speed is zero B)its acceleration is zero C)its speed is variable D)its acceleration is opposite to velocity E)its velocity is negative How to cite Shashi, Papers

Morning Java Descriptive Essay free essay sample

Java Startled by my alarm, I stretch my arm out from under the covers and search frantically in the dark to put an end to the obnoxious sound. I feel around for my lamp and switch it on, keeping my position until my eyes adjust to the light. Before I ever get out of bed, I’m already overwhelmed thinking of my many tasks for the day. When motivation is scarce, there is only one thought that brings me out of my cozy, warm bed and to my feet. Waiting to be made is a fresh, boosting cup of morning coffee. Confronting the seemingly arctic air, I slide my feet into fuzzy, pink slippers and head for the kitchen. I make a quick stop at the thermostat, crank up the heat, then b-line it to the stainless steel coffee pot that used to belong to my Grandmother. Sitting next to the pot is a bright red Folgers can. We will write a custom essay sample on Morning Java Descriptive Essay or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Holding it up close to my face, I crack open the lid and am instantly delighted with the robust scent of ground coffee beans. Possibly being the only â€Å"me time† of the entire day, the quietness of the early morning combined with the delicious aroma of coffee brewing is greatly treasured. Reaching into the cabinet containing the coffee mugs, I instinctively push through them until my favorite one is spotted. Dulled out yellow with a small chip on the handle, it displays markings from years of the dishwasher’s wear and tear. I pour the steamy drink into the old cup and sip cautiously. No sugar or cream diluting the flavor, I savor the dark coffee and smile with approval. Trusty mug in hand, I sit down to catch a quick glimpse of the morning news. Its warmth cushions the chill I get from the blizzard forecast flashing across the screen. Cold, weary, and fatigued, I sip as fast as I can, urging the rich, caffeinated liquid to hit me as soon as possible. I hear my two year old, sick with the flu, stirring around in his crib. I know it won’t be long from now until he is protesting and ultimately waking my other children. With medicine to be given, breakfast to be made, and children to be dressed, it’s a mystery how I will make it out of the house with my shoes on. But I continue sipping my powerful beverage and before I know it my tiredness fades. Buzzing around the house, I take on the morning tasks with a renewed sense of warmth and liveliness. Knowing without a doubt, this java comes from my ritualistic morning coffee session.

Kinship free essay sample

This paper investigates the phenomenon of borrowing of the kinship terms from one language to another. The languages under inquiry are Punjabi and Urdu in an area where both the languages are spoken as the major languages. It is natural for languages to adopt words from other languages due to their contact with each other. The paper explores the contact situation of Urdu and Punjabi with particular focus on the phenomenon of the borrowing of the kinship terms. In order to investigate the matter quantitatively ten subjects were selected, whose first language (L1) was Punjabi. A questionnaire was made containing kinship terms of Urdu language and the subject knowledge of the Punjabi kinship terms was checked. In a community where the speakers are bilinguals with Punjabi and Urdu languages, the study shows that Urdu kinship terms are preferred over Punjabi kinship terms to such an extent that the speakers use Urdu kinship terms even when they speak their mother tongue, namely, Punjabi. We will write a custom essay sample on Kinship or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Introduction: Kinship is one of the universals in human society and therefore plays an important role in both the regulation of behavior and the formation of social groups. Kinship systems depend on the social recognition and cultural implementation of relationships derived from descent and marriage and normally involve a set of kinship terms and an associated set of behavioral patterns and attitudes which, together, make up a systematic whole. All societies distinguish various categories of relation-ship by descent or consanguinity, and most societies distinguish relationships by marriage or affinity as well. Although dictionary definitions differentiate these relationships, it is convenient to extend the term â€Å"kinship† to cover both kinds. The resulting network of social relations may constitute almost the whole social structure in some of the simpler societies or be a relatively small part of a highly complex structure, as in modern industrial societies. In either case, however, the system of kin-ship and marriage plays an important role in maintaining group cohesion and solidarity and in orienting the individual members to the social maze. The use of the term â€Å"system† implies that there is a complex relation of interdependence between the component parts: the social categories and the associated rights and duties. Lexical borrowing can be defined as the adoption of individual words from another language. It happens when two languages are in contact and one language borrows lexical items from the other language. Borrowing is the process which requires language contact. It means there should be at least a certain degree of bilingualism for some people with the donor language and the recipient language. In this study the donor language is Urdu and the recipient language is Punjabi and the lexical items which are analyzed are the kinship terms. Objectives: The paper aims to: ?Compare the Urdu and Punjabi kinship terms. ?Explore the borrowing of the kinship terms when the speakers of a community use Urdu and Punjabi languages. ? language Investigate the influence of Urdu on Punjabi in urban areas with particular focus on the kinship terms. Punjabi Language: The Punjabi language is a member of the Indo-Aryan subdivision of the Indo-European family. It is spoken by more than 100 million people in Punjab (in Pakistan and north western India). Over 44% of Pakistanis learn it as their first language and about 70% of Pakistanis can understand it. Kinship Terminology in Punjabi and Urdu: The kinship terminology in both the Punjabi and Urdu languages is very extensive and specific. The system makes crucial reference to three parameters: age, consanguinity (relation by blood or marriage) and laterality (relation on the mother’s side or father’s side). As a result, instead of general terms as „uncle? or „aunt? , highly specific terms are used. English-speaking people do not distinguish linguistically between uncle „father’s brother? , „mother’s brother? , „father’s sister’s husband? , „mother’s sister’s husband? , but Punjabi and Urdu languages do distinguish between all of these different relationships. The assumption is that this differential linguistic labeling reflects differences in the structures of different societies and in the roles and behavior which are expected of individuals having particular relationships with one another (Trudgill 1992). Table 1: Urdu and Punjabi kinship terms Urdu TermPunjabi Term AbbuAbbu/Abba AmmiAmmi/Amma BetaPutar BetiDhee Bara BhaiLala/Veer/bhra Chota BhaiKaka/Nikka BehanBhain DadaDada/Baba DadiDadi/Wade amma NanaNana NaniNani ShoharKhasam/Karwala/Banda BiviKarwali/Budhi DulhaLara/Nadha/Ghabru DulhanWohti/Lari TayaBaba/Taya/wade Abbu TayeeBabi/Tayee/wade Amma ChachaChachu ChachiChachi PhuphaPhupher PhuphiPhupho KhaluKhalu/Maasser KhalaaMaasee/khala MamuMama/Mamu MamaniMami BhabhiBharjayee BhatijaPatriya/Bhatriya BhatijiPatri/Bhatri BhanjaBharyya/Bhanja/Panewa BhanjiBharyye/Bhanji/panewee BehnoyeeaBhanuja/Bharwiyya SalaSala SaleharSalehar SaliSali SandhuSandha/Sandhu NandNinnan JaithJaith JaithaniaJaithani DewarDeor DewaraniDarani DamadJawayee BahuNoo Pota Potra PotiPotri DotaDotra DotiDotria SuserSora SaasSas Population: Ten respondents were selected randomly whose first language (L1) was Punjabi and who were residing in the urban and rural areas of Sargodha. Sargodha is a multi-cultural city where Punjabi and Urdu are the major languages. Procedure: A questionnaire was made consisting of 50 vocabulary items i. e. Urdu kinship terms. The respondents were asked to write down the equivalent Punjabi terms as well as the terms that they use when they speak Punjabi. Results and Analysis of the Data: The respondents proficiency as well as their usage of Punjabi kinship terms was checked by the questionnaire and the results were found as follows: Total number of respondents: 10 First Language (L1) of the respondents: Punjabi Table 2: Results of the Questionnaire Urdu Kinship TermNumber %age of the respondents who knew equivalent Punjabi termNumber %age of the respondents who reported that they use Punjabi term when they speak Punjabi Abbu10(100%)3(30%) Ammi9(90%)5(50%) Beta10(100%)8(80%) Beti10(100%)7(70%) Bhai9(90%)7(70%) Behan7(70%)3(30%) Shohar8(80%)4(40%) Bivi9(90%)3(30%) Dulha 7(70%)2(20%) Dulhan8(80%)4(40%) Phupha9(90%)2(20%) Khalu8(80%)1(10%) Khala10(100%) 2(20%) Mamu10(100%)1(10%) Mamani10(100%) 4(40%) Bhabhi9(90%)3(30%) Behnoyee8(80%)2(20%) Nand9(90%)4(40%) Dewar7(70%)1(10%) Dewarani8(80%)2(20%) Bahu10(100%)5(50%) Pota9(90%)3(30%) Dota10(100%)3(30%) Susser10(100%)2(20%) Damad7(70%)4(40%) Average values9(90%)3(30%) The data show that nine out of total ten respondents which become 90% of the total population under investigation know the Punjabi kinship terms. 10% of the population does not know the Punjabi kinship terms at all. As for the usage of Punjabi kinship terms, only 30% of the population (only three out of ten) uses Punjabi kinship terms while speaking Punjabi. They prefer Urdu kinship terms even when they speak Punjabi. Discussion: The literature reviewed and the data collected show that the Punjabi language is clearly borrowing kinship terms from the Urdu language where the two languages are spoken in the same area. People with Urdu and Punjabi bilingualism prefer Urdu kinship terms even when they speak Punjabi. Their first language (L1) is Punjabi, the data show that 10% of the population does not know the Punjabi kinship terms at all. This population knows only Urdu kinship terminology. Out of the 90% population who knows the Punjabi kinship terms, only 30% uses Punjabi kinship terms while speaking Punjabi. Most of the respondents reported that they prefer Urdu kinship terms even when they speak Punjabi. The summary of kinship terms (Table 1) shows that most of the kinship terms of Urdu and Punjabi are similar; yet there are some differences. The Punjabi language is a member of the Indo-Aryan subdivision of the Indo-European language family. Over 44% of Pakistanis learn it as their first language. Urdu was formed around the 1600? s in Central Asia. It has borrowed numerous linguistic items from Perso-Arabic and Indo-Aryan languages. So in the course of its development Urdu might have borrowed kinship terms from Punjabi with some changes due to its different phonological system. Now it is surprising that Punjabi is borrowing the kinship terms back from Urdu exactly in the same way as they are used in Urdu because Urdu is enjoying more prestige than Punjabi. Conclusion: The study shows that the Urdu kinship terms are preferred over Punjabi kinship terms to such an extent that the speakers use Urdu kinship terms even when they speak in their mother tongue i. e. Punjabi. Some of the Punjabi speakers have even lost their L1 kinship terms. The paper highlights the phenomenon of borrowing of kinship terms in urban areas from comparatively high prestige language i. e. Urdu to low prestige language i. e. Punjabi. It shows that the Punjabi speakers living in urban areas could not fully retain their L1 kinship terms and adopted the Urdu kinship terms. The study also highlights the phenomenon of lexical borrowing as one of the potential factors involved in the change of lexicon of a language in language contact situations.

Interpreter In Community Interpreting Essay

Interpreter In Community Interpreting Essay Role Of Interpreter In Community Interpreting Analysis Essay Role Of Interpreter In Community Interpreting Analysis Essay Interpreting has always been an integral part of social and business activities, but it was recognized as a particular science that called for specialized training of professionals in the middle of the 20th century. Since then, various kinds of interpreting have been a subject for researchers who made attempts to reveal all of its peculiarities and characteristics from various perspectives. However, community interpreting is a relatively new field of interpreting that may be deemed understudied as compared to conference interpreting. Moreover, the focus of researches in relation to these two different fields of interpreting is quite different. Studies of conference interpreting are aimed at revealing peculiarities and characteristics of the process of interpreting, as well as neurological, linguistic, and psychological features and qualities of interpreters and the best techniques and methods they employ. In turn, studies of community interpreting tend to focus on the role of interpr eter and various controversial issues related to community interpreting and interpreters’ roles in various settings. The overwhelming majority of researchers agree that community interpreting is a quite controversial field in terms of the public’s perception of the interpreter’s role. Thus, the current paper is aimed at analyzing the role of a community interpreter using different studies, as well as providing a definition of the concept of community interpreting and a brief overview of the community interpreter training with a view of better understanding the controversies related to the field. In general, community interpreters perform various roles depending on the setting and discourse, which necessitate different approaches to the process of interpretation and stakeholders involved, yet it is absolutely evident that their role should not and cannot be reduced to a mere verbatim translating machine. The paper consists of such sections as Introduction, Definition of Community Interpreting, Role of Community Interpreters and Debates Relating Thereto, Community Interpreter Training, Further Studies Relating to Community Interpreting and Its Role, and Conclusion. Definition of Community Interpreting Many controversies concerning the role of community interpreters arise from the fact that there are debates over the definition of the concept of community interpreting. Moreover, a great deal of ambiguity stems from varying levels of development and recognition of community interpreting throughout the world, thus proving the lack of unified approach to the field. Hence, countries and researchers in terms of their attitudes towards the concept â€Å"range from those that deny existence of the issue (an ever diminishing number), through countries that rely on ad hoc services, to generic language services, to fully comprehensive responses of training, service provision and accreditation† (Buendia 2010). In general, there are many definitions of the concept, but all of them are united by the fact that community interpreting is an extremely broad field â€Å"that enhances equal access to public and community services for individuals who do not speak the language of service† (Bancroft et al. 2013). As a rule, communicative interpreting is consecutive, but there are instances when it is simultaneous though the latter cases are rare (Pekanheimo, Kauhala, Ojala 2013). The definition given in the Canadian National Standard Guide for Community Interpreting Services seems to be the most objective and all-encompassing: Bidirectional interpreting that takes place in the course of communication among speakers of different languages. The context is the provision of public services such as healthcare or community services and in settings such as governmental agencies, community centers, legal settings, educational institutions, and social services. (Healthcare Interpretation Network 2007) Although the term ‘community interpreting’ is most commonly used when referring to the above contexts of interpretation, there are other terms that are sometimes used interchangeably with it and denote virtually the same thing. However, such ambiguity of terms creates additional complications for comprehension and identification of the role that the community interpreters play. Some of such terms include dialogue interpreting, liaison interpreting, court interpreting, medical interpreting, business interpreting, ad hoc interpreting, media interpreting, telephone interpreting, TV interpreting, and sign interpreting (Jiang 2007). The above listed notions are employed when there is a clear intention to emphasize some peculiar aspect of the interpretation process. For instance, dialogue interpreting implies that there is a dialogue between the participants, but fails to focus on the setting (Jiang 2007). Liaison interpreting emphasizes â€Å"the link or contact between diff erent groups of speakers who do not speak the same language† and is often interchanged with such terms as escort or delegate interpreting (Jiang 2007). Court interpreting, medical interpreting, business interpreting and similar kinds of interpreting draw attention to the institutional aspect and setting of the interpretation (Jiang 2007). Sometimes, the latter types of interpretation are singled out as different from the community interpreting due to a huge variety of studies focusing on different settings and availability of specific features peculiar to this or that institutional aspect. However, the majority of researchers support an idea that these interpretations are only peculiar types of the community interpreting. The term ‘ad hoc interpreting’ emphasizes spontaneity, but it is usually used to denote interpretation rendered by bilingual non-professionals who want to help in respective circumstances (Jiang 2007). Media, TV, and telephone interpreting focus on the medium employed in the process, while sign language interpretation implies the use of the sign language, i.e. interpretation between two different semiotic systems (Jiang 2007). Moreover, the definition of roles of community interpreters becomes even more complicated if to take into account that some kinds of interpretation may overlap, for instance, legal interpreting and community interpreting, in addition to complications caused by development and publication of quite different and even sometimes contrary codes of ethics for community interpreters. The following section of the paper is aimed at summarizing and analyzing the most wide-spread roles of community interpreters as defined by interpreters themselves, professional unions, and researchers. Role of Community Interpreters and Debates Relating Thereto The role of an interpreter in community interpreting continues to be a subject of debates. There are various views on this issue and these views vary depending on situational context, parties involved, and the country where the interpretation takes place. Thus, there are proponents of an idea that community interpreters should perform the role of â€Å"translating machines†, i.e. delivering verbatim interpretation of everything said by all parties involved without taking into account the cultural and other differences (Leanza 2005). Such a view is the most prevailing in the context of court interpreting when judges may demand an almost word-for-word translation. However, such approach remains highly debated and doubted among professional interpreters and researchers who point out the impossibility and invalidity of such interpreting performance due to the lack of consistency and inability to convey the original intended message in the language of translation in such case. Thus , the overwhelming majority of contemporary professional interpreters and researchers in this field tend to suggest that community interpreting â€Å"can facilitate intercultural communication, construct bridges between different symbolic universes and facilitate the process of migrant integration† (Leanza 2005). Various researchers have been engaged in determining the role of community interpreters over the years and some of their findings are presented below with a special focus on their universal applicability to community interpreting in general. European and American code of ethics for community interpreters seem to be quite different in terms of their emphasis on the interpreter’s role. The Finnish code of ethics for community interpreters complies with other European codes of this kind developed and published by professional unions. Thus, according to it, one of the main requirements for interpreters is to be â€Å"impartial, remain outsiders to the situation, and do not let their personal attitudes or opinions affect their work† (Pekanheimo, Kauhala, Ojala 2013). They are to take into account â€Å"the nature of the situation†, but should not care for any other tasks but interpretation itself (Pekanheimo, Kauhala, Ojala 2013). Besides, they â€Å"do not leave out anything or add anything irrelevant† (Pekanheimo, Kauhala, Ojala 2013). The code does not mention anything relating to cultural mediation and intends to ensure that interpreters remain a quite detached third party in any instance. In turn, the Canadian National Standard Guide for Community Interpreting Services emphasizes the significance of the interpreter possessing highly developed linguistic and interpretation competence, but it also provides the following role that community interpreters should adhere to: â€Å"The interpreter must be able to understand and convey cultural nuances without assuming the role of advocate or cultural broker† (Healthcare Interpretation Network 2007). There are virtually no other mentioning of cultural mediation role of interpreters, yet the guide encourages them to do anything they deem reasonable to ensure effective communication of the parties, which implies that interpreters are not prohibited from taking a more active role than an impartial verbatim translating machine. However, this point of cultural mediation and assumption of the role of advocates by some community interpreters is rather controversial as well. Many governmental agencies, especially the ones deali ng with asylum decisions, are reluctant to communicate openly with interpreters and provide them with relevant preparatory information as they consider them to be advocates of immigrants though as a rule this is not the case. Therefore, not only community interpreters, but also institutions they are working with require clear determination of the interpreter’s role in order to avoid confusion and prevent conflicts in the future. Many researchers suppose that community interpreting should not be entirely impartial and detached and offer their typologies of community interpreter’s roles. One of the studies distinguishes five possible roles that community interpreters can perform in the healthcare setting, including those of translator, cultural informant, culture broker or cultural mediator, advocate, and bilingual professional (Leanza 2005). The study points out that the role of a translator is least efficient in the healthcare setting as both sides of the communication often require interpreter’s assistance for understanding cultural differences and making quick decisions that would benefit all stakeholders. Roles of cultural informant and cultural mediator are most frequently needed to â€Å"help both parties arrive at a meaningful shared model† (Leanza 2005). The role of the advocate is intended for interpreters who prefer to be actively involved in rendition of social services and go beyond their interpreting functions as â€Å"in a value-conflict situation, the interpreter may choose to defend the patient against the institution† (Leanza 2005). The matter is that real-life situations do not allow interpreters to remain translators only; as their primary function is to ensure effective and productive communication despite any cultural differences that the parties may have, hence necessitating them to perform a role of a cultural mediator to a varying extent. Most recent studies have moved beyond the debate on whether interpreters play any role in community interpreting different from other types of interpretation in the debate on what this role should be in particular and what consequences it might have. Hence, the overwhelming majority of researches agree that it is up to the community interpreter to decide whether to â€Å"actively involve himself, or abstain from such involvement† (Jacobsen 2009). The practice also proves that interpreters assume more active roles than official norms and guidelines prescribe. Cecilia Wadensjo supposes that community interpreter’s role lies in being both a translator and coordinator (Jacobsen 2009). Interpreters adopt various roles concerning reception and production â€Å"as a reaction to the principal participants’ assumptions† about their proper role (Jacobsen 2009). Another study by Leanza defines four primary roles of community interpreters, including those of a system agent, community agent, integration agent, and linguistic agent with the latter being deemed least effective in most settings (Jacobsen 2009). A study by Hale considers the question of the interpreter’s role to be highly controversial because of the â€Å"lack of a strong, unified profession that could counteract the different role expectations of users of interpreting services† (Hale 2008). Despite this admission, Hale distinguishes five roles of community interpreters: â€Å"advocate for the minority language speaker†, â€Å"advocate for the institution or service provider†, gatekeeper, â€Å"facilitator of communication†, and â€Å"faithful renderer of others’ utterances† (Hale 2008). The choice of the role partially depends on the interpreter’s positioning and level of engagement and partially on the community’s e xpectations and requirements. In any case, an interpreter should carefully consider possible consequences of assuming this or that role in community interpreting so as to benefit the parties involved to the greatest extent possible without inflicting harm or unnecessary stress on oneself. Thus, the process of choosing and performing a particular role in community interpreting may be considered a search for the balance between personal interests and ethics of an interpreter and interests and expectations of the two parties involved in the interaction and requiring his/her assistance. Most researchers agree that community interpreters should not â€Å"act as mindless machines†, but they cannot agree on definite roles that such interpreters can and should assume (Jacobsen 2009). The most reasonable approach practiced by many successful US community interpreters is to assume different roles in different settings and with account to current circumstances. For instance, the healthcare setting often calls for cultural mediation and a higher level of interpreter’s engagement in the interaction process, while court interpreting remains among the most impartial and verbatim types of community interpreting. Moreover, interpreters should be able to assess potential consequences of their assuming different roles and whether these roles would be beneficial or detrimental for the communication process. Thus, as proved by a wide variety of approaches to the raised issue, even discussion and presentation of various roles interpreters may play in community interpret ing is a highly subjective and controversial process. Community Interpreter Training The question of interpreter’s roles in community interpreting is essential nowadays and should be given appropriate consideration in the process of training of future professional interpreters who want to work in the field. Therefore, future community interpreters should be educated on possible roles they may take and consequences of such decisions. So far, most training programs focus on technicalities of the interpretation process, as well as peculiarities of various settings where interpreters may work. However, it is essential to cover a range of roles allowable within these different settings. For instance, the Twin Cities Interpreter Project launched in Minnesota focuses on peculiarities of community interpreting in various institutional settings (Nicholson 1994). Other American community interpreting training programs and related institutions include the Bilingual Access Line, the Center for Interpretation and Translation, the University of Delaware Interpretation Progr am, and some programs implemented by governmental agencies (Nicholson 1994). A huge progress of these programs lies in the fact that they focus on ensuring smooth cooperation of interpreters and institutions’ representatives, hence providing at least a vague outline of a role community interpreters are going to perform when cooperating with these institutions. Further Studies Relating to Community Interpreting and its Role Community interpreting remains a relatively young field of translation studies that has been recently recognized as completely different in functions and underlying features from conference and other kinds of interpreting. Therefore, it has to be thoroughly studied in the future with special focus on controversial and debated issues, including the role of interpreters in community interpreting. Moreover, respective and appropriate codes of ethics should be developed for community interpreters as the existing ones resemble those intended for conference interpreters because of their emphasis on impartial and detached nature of interpretation. The above studies, as well as real-life experiences of community interpreters prove that it is not possible to follow the prescribed official guidelines as they do not comply with expectations of stakeholders and contextual needs of the interpretation. The main function of any interpreter is to convey the intended message by means of the language of translation, i.e. pragmatics is given preference over verbatim translation of lexemes. Furthermore, many institutional settings that require services of a community interpreter do not need merely an adequate translation of information, but rather cultural mediation and explanation of some cultural norms and behaviors that one or both parties find strange and incomprehensible. Globalization and intense migration have made community interpretation of high demand in various institutions and interpreter’s roles should be developed and explained to all stakeholders according to the current needs. Therefore, existing studies on community interpreting may be deemed insufficient in this respect and further researches on the role of community interpreters have to be carried out taking into account practical experiences and opinions of interpreters, communities, and institutions involved in the process. The present paper has provided a brief overview of the problematic and controversial issue of the role that interpreters play and should play in the process of community interpreting. Taking into consideration available literature and various viewpoints on the issue, it may be concluded that community interpreters cannot afford remaining mere translating machines that provide an utterly impartial and detached verbatim translation. On the contrary, they should be able to perform a variety of roles depending on the setting and circumstances. The most essential requirement for community interpreters is to possess cultural competence in both original language and the language of interpretation in order to be able to bridge the gap between the parties. Moreover, community interpreters often work with people who are not used to interpretation of any kind, hence being unaware of its specific features. Community interpreters should therefore be able to adequately assess and respond to the ne eds of the parties they are translating for with a view of ensuring effective communication. However, universal typology of interpreters’ possible and preferable roles with regards to community interpreting would significantly facilitate and improve their work all over the world as today this information is insufficient and in some cases prevents interpreters from performing their duties professionally.

Since the 1960s, a growing number of people have been moving away from Essay - 1

Since the 1960s, a growing number of people have been moving away from villages and small towns to big cities in both developed - Essay Example I will then discuss the effects migration has had on cities and rural areas in Britain and Ghana to highlight the similarities and differences between the problems faced in developed and developing countries. Lewis (1982) argues that migration is caused by a series of forces which encourage people to leave one place (push) and attract them to another (pull). Push factors include the decline of natural resources in rural areas. For example, the exhaustion of mines, timber and agricultural resources can result in fewer jobs available in rural areas, causing poverty, which forces people to move to urban areas in the hope of finding work. Parnwell (1993) also cites high rural population growth as a reason for rural-urban migration. This is because it results in a surplus of labour in rural areas, forcing people to move to urban areas to find jobs. Environmental degradation of rural areas (e.g. over-grazing and draught) can also force people to migrate due to food shortages. Religious str ife, political persecution, escaping from oppression and war also contribute to rural-urban migration Bogue (1959) also highlights that people leave rural areas due to the lack of basic infrastructure (electricity and water supplies) and services (public transport, hospitals and schools). Parnwell (1993) highlights a series of ‘pull factors’ that encourage people to move to cities, including migrant’s belief that superior opportunities for employment in manufacturing, construction, commerce and the service industry can be found in urban areas. Many people also move to cities to join kin already living and working there. However, Parnwell (1993) notes that despite migrants believing that urban areas offer an escape from poverty and better employment opportunities, the reality can be quite different, and unemployment and hardship are quite common it cities. Other people may move to urban areas because they may offer better career opportunities and higher wages. Bet ter welfare facilities such as education, increased access to doctors and health care, raised standards of living and better housing have also contributed to a growth in urban environments. Valentine (1995) also believes people move to urban areas for their ‘freedom of expression and liberation’, e.g. urban areas allow people to express themselves in ways not possible in rural areas, e.g. creation of gay and lesbian districts. However, Parnwell (1993) notes that cities can also provide a danger and intimidating environment for others, e.g. fear of crime. ‘Modern urbanization in developing countries is unlike earlier growth of towns and cities in developed countries’ (Kemp, 2004: 123). In Ghana urbanization is not driven by industrialization, but by natural growth and migration from rural areas. Ghana’s current population stands at 24.8 million (CIA, 2010), in which 51% of Ghanaians live in urban areas. Every year the urban population grows by 3.4%. A developed country such as Britain on the other hand has 80% of it’s population already living in urban environments, with a much slower urban growth rate of 0.7% per year (CIA, 2011). Jackson et al (1996) claim that the process of urbanisation in developing countries such as Ghana tends to be less controlled than in developed coun